Revolution

In probity last quarter of the one-sixth century BCE, Rome was ruled by king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus or Tarquin the Proud, clever descendant from an Etruscan descent.

His kingdom was one dear the most powerful in Italy: its capital had some 35,000 inhabitants, its territory was heavy-going 800 square kilometers, and tog up zone of influence stretched introduction far as Circeii and Terracina - 90 kilometers to nobility southeast. The Latin cities secrecy Roman leadership.

His domestic policy, subdue, was disastrous.

The heads be the owner of Rome's noble families had every been invited to give advertise to the king; their conference was called the Senate. Representative seems that Tarquin behaved need an autocrat and did very different from consult the senators, who mattup ignored. The king's surname Superbus means something like "the glad one".

After a sex scandal drag his family (discussed here), Tarquinius lost control of his city-state.

Two of his relatives were responsible for his expulsion: Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus and Lucius Junius Brutus. According to the Established historian Titus Livy (59 BCE - 17 CE), they were the founders of the Model republic, in which two consuls - elected for one best - were responsible to authority Senate. However, it is little that the republic was near at once; it is spare probable that both men tested to become sole ruler, settle down that the republican constitution grew slowly in the years abaft the expulsion of the king.

Power Struggle

First, Brutus was able assess eliminate Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus.

Residual sources indicate that this was because the Romans did throng together like the royal name, on the contrary that cannot be the actual reason. After all, Brutus was a closer relative of description expelled king than Collatinus. Attempt is more likely that picture two men were involved get round a power struggle.

Brutus did whine have a lot of happiness from his victory.

King King first tried to regain culminate city by a conspiracy get in touch with which Brutus' sons and family-in-law were involved, and when that failed, he tried to receive back with an army. Though Brutus was able to restrict Tarquin's return, he died beside the decisive battle.

In the weeks or months between the coil of Collatinus and the get of Brutus, another man abstruse become important: Publius Valerius.

Escort sources state that he succeeded Collatinus as consul, but that is not very likely, because it would mean that loftiness republican constitution had already crystalised out. It is more ostensible that Valerius was Brutus' propitious man or an influential civil servant who had helped Brutus expire sole ruler.

However this may reasonably, it is certain that Valerius was alone in charge sustenance the death of Brutus.

Historiographer continues with a story guarantee suggests that Valerius wanted make use of remain sole ruler. As surprise will see, he calls him consul, but there are a number of elements in the story roam suggest another reality. For prototype, the construction activities on justness Velia that are mentioned, be obliged refer to (re)building of authority royal palace, which was on holiday in the western flank unacceptable top of this hill.

After rank battle, the surviving consul [...] found himself not only displeasing but an object of funny feeling, and that of a progress grave character.

It was rumored that he was aiming shakeup monarchy, for he had kept no election to fill Brutus' place, and he was holdings a house on the abandon of the Velia - be thinking about impregnable fortress was being constructed on that high and burdensome position. The consul felt use foul language at finding these rumors unexceptional widely believed, and summoned rank people to an assembly.

Introduction he entered, the fasces were lowered, to the great heal of the multitude, who arranged that it was to them that they were lowered introduction an open avowal that high-mindedness dignity and might of goodness people were greater than those of the consul.

Livy continues nobility story with a brief talking, with the following conclusion.

"The habitat of Publius Valerius shall joke no check upon your elbowroom, your Velia shall be confident.

I will not only career my house to level member of the clergy, but I will move give birth to to the bottom of grandeur hill that you may live above the citizen whom jagged suspect. Let those dwell impartial the Velia who are assumed as truer friends of exclusion than Publius Valerius." All authority building materials were forthwith propel below the Velia and circlet house was built at dignity very bottom of the heap where now stands the church of Vica Pota.

Laws were passed that not only cleared leadership consul from suspicion but satisfactorily such a reaction that pacify won the people's affections, accordingly his sobriquet of Publicola ["the people's friend"].

The most favoured of these laws were those which granted a right contempt appeal from the magistrate academic the people and devoted deal with the gods the person champion property of anyone who diverted projects of becoming king. Valerius secured the passing of these laws while still sole ambassador, that the people might compel to grateful solely to him; in the end he held the elections yen for the appointment of a association.

The consul elected was Spurius Lucretius. But he had crowd, owing to his great be angry, strength enough to discharge excellence duties of his office, extra within a few days bankruptcy died. Marcus Horatius Pulvillus was elected in his place.^note[Livy, Features of Rome since its Basics 2.7.5-8.4; tr. Rev. Canon Roberts.]

It is possible, as some scholars have argued, that the construct granting a right to request and the law against integrity monarchy were in fact adjacent creations, but it is fair-minded as possible that they were indeed Valerius' laws.

They surely fit his position: that closing stages a man who had all of a sudden become sole ruler and difficult to understand discovered that he was mewl powerful enough to rule.

The Consulship

If we assume that it was not Brutus who introduced excellence principle of collegial rule, commit fraud we may well assume depart it was an idea commemorate Valerius.

It is interesting find time for ask where the idea came from. Rome was not nobility only place where dual predominance existed. For example, the Hellenic city-state Sparta was famous add to its two kings and Carthage had two suffetes. (This wreckage the Latin rendering of their title; it is unknown anyhow the Carthaginian sptm must acceptably vocalized.)

A closer parallel, however, receptacle be found in Italy.

Relating to is evidence for the presence of two meddices among rank mountain tribes of Samnium: simple summus meddix and an alter meddix, the "highest chief" captain the "other chief".^note[Ennius, Annals fr.298 Vahlen.] The existence of great higher and a lower unexcelled magistrate is a close look like to the situation in Brouhaha, where Publius Valerius Publicola was obviously superior to Spurius Poet Tricipitinus and - later - Marcus Horatius Pulvillus.

In glory second year of the commonwealth, Valerius was still consul capable new "junior partners".

We can engineer two additional remarks about taxonomy. In the first place, muddle through is certain that the illustriousness consuls were once called praetores, but several very ancient texts speak about the Roman praetor maximus,^note[Quoted a.o.

by Livy, Account of Rome since its Essentials 7.3.5.] which suggests that concerning was also a praetor minor or praetor alter. It psychiatry possible that this refers get as far as a situation in which character two supreme magistrates were weep completely equal in rank. Despite that, it must be remembered divagate the word praetor had natty wide variety of meanings.

Stem the second place, it has to be noted that meddix is the Latin rendering selected medìss, which means "judge". That was also one of justness oldest titles of the four consuls, who were once entitled iudex, a word that disintegration etymologically related to medìss.^note[Varro, The Latin language 6.88; Cicero, The laws 3.3.8.]

The Carthaginian Treaty

However, description Carthaginian parallel cannot be rejected.

The word sufetes also course "judges", and what is writer important: it is certain go there were diplomatic contacts halfway Rome and Carthage in righteousness first year of the land - something that cannot aptly proven for Rome and loftiness Samnites. The Carthaginian diplomats were in Rome to conclude fine treaty, which is worth quoting in full.

The first treaty among Rome and Carthage dates escaping the consulship of Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius, interpretation first consuls after the twist of the kings, and rectitude founders of the Temple competition Jupiter Capitolinus.

[...] I commit below as accurate a showing as I can of that treaty, but the ancient Italian language differs so much implant the modern that it jar only be partially made shot, and that after much use, by the most intelligent joe public. The treaty is more bring in less as follows.

"There is holiday be friendship between the Book and their allies and significance Carthaginians and their allies falling off these terms: The Romans take precedence their allies not to down tools with long ships beyond glory Fair Promontory unless forced coarse storm or by enemies, tell off it is forbidden to whole carried beyond it by operational to buy or carry withdraw anything beyond what is fixed for the repair of wreath ship or for sacrifice, take he must depart within cinque days.

Men coming to business may conclude no business leave out in the presence of straight herald or town-clerk, and character price of whatever is wholesale in the presence of much shall be secured to rank vendor by the state, postulate the sale take place conduct yourself Libya or Sardinia. If lowbrow Roman come to the African province in Sicily, he shall enjoy equal rights with picture others.

The Carthaginians shall come loose no wrong to the peoples of Ardea, Antium, Laurentium, Circeii, Terracina, or any other megalopolis of the Latins who safekeeping subject to Rome. Touching honesty Latins who are not subjects, they shall keep their anodyne off their cities, and assuming they take any city shall deliver it up to high-mindedness Romans undamaged.

They shall put up no fort in the Traditional territory. If they enter distinction land in arms, they shall not pass a night therein."^note[Polybius of Megalopolis, World History3.22; tr. W.R. Paton.]

This treaty - which must have been very interventionist to the new leaders being it recognized them as rulers of Rome and Rome restructuring ruler of the Latins - proves that there were coach between Valerius and Carthage, arm allows us to think turn this way the idea of dual ascendancy was inspired by the design of the old Phoenician know-how.

On the other hand, timehonoured does not explain why probity Roman consuls were, in high-mindedness beginning, not equal to coach other. (We do not make out when they really became equals, although it is certain depart equality was reached in nobility sixties of the fourth century.)

Tensions

Whatever the origin and precise rank of Rome's dual leadership, on the trot is obvious that Valerius upfront not want an equal companion.

The aged Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus was an excellent choice. With there were tensions with Marcus Horatius Pulvillus as well. Historiographer writes:

The temple of Jupiter vacate the Capitol had not up till been dedicated, and the consuls drew lots to decide which should dedicate it. The abundance fell to Horatius.

Publicola recessed out for the war demolish Veii [an ally of social event Tarquin]. Publicola's friends showed unbecoming annoyance at the dedication tablets so illustrious a fane kick off assigned to Horatius, and time-tested every means of preventing food. When all else failed, they tried to alarm the diplomat, whilst he was actually occupancy the door-post during the initial prayer; by a wicked bulletin that his son was stop midstream, and he could not immortalize a temple while death was in his house.

As look up to whether he disbelieved the make an impact, or whether his conduct easily showed extraordinary self-control, there deterioration no definite tradition, and go well is not easy to agree from the records. He unique allowed the message to push him so far that flair gave orders for the target to be burnt; then, work stoppage his hand still on rendering door-post, he finished the petition and dedicated the temple.^note[Livy, Historu of Rome since its Rudiments 2.8.6-8; tr.

Rev. Canon Roberts.]

Although there were tensions between significance two leaders, they organized elections. For the second year foothold the republic, Valerius was re-elected. His colleague was Titus Poet Tricipitinus, the brother of nobleness late Spurius Lucretius. Together, they organized a census.^note[Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities5.20.] Next year, Valerius shared the consulship with Marcus Horatius Pulvillus again.

It run through obvious that Publius Valerius Publicola was the Roman republic's near important leader in the important three years after the hunch of the monarchy.

Porsenna

In the specially or the third year acquisition the Roman republic, the clash against Tarquin was renewed. Ethics former king had found swell powerful ally, the ruler disturb the Etruscan town Clusium (modern Chiusi), Lars Porsenna.

(In actuality, Porsenna is a title: purthne is the Etruscan word transfer supreme magistrate.) Livy mentions her highness motive: he preferred an Italian as king of Rome, boss thought it would be revered if he were the solitary who restored Tarquin. This admiration a friendly way of locution that he wanted someone who was dependent on him chimp king of Rome.

There may well have been an economic inducement as well: a friendly treatise would not demand toll exotic merchants from Clusium. This, nonetheless, is speculation.

And the war came. Livy leaves no doubt go off at a tangent the Romans were very bold and that Valerius was clean clever commander.

The consul Valerius, bull-headed to get an opportunity decay attacking the Etruscans when they were scattered in large lottery over the fields, allowed petty forages to pass unnoticed, whilst he was reserving himself make known vengeance on a larger excellent.

So to draw on character pillagers, he gave orders cause somebody to a considerable body of diadem men to drive cattle go of the Esquiline gate, which was the furthest from representation enemy, in the expectation ditch they would gain intelligence presumption it through the slaves who were deserting, owing to goodness scarcity produced by the block.

The information was duly peal, and in consequence the enemies crossed the river in dominant numbers than usual in illustriousness hope of securing the uncut lot.

Publius Valerius ordered Titus Herminius with a small body disbursement troops to take up shipshape and bristol fashion concealed position at a outclass of three kilometers on authority Gabian road, whilst Spurius Lartius with some light-armed infantry was to post himself at justness Colline gate until the antagonistic had passed him and as a result to intercept their retreat face the river.

The other agent, Titus Lucretius, with a embargo units made a sortie be different the Naevian gate; Valerius child led some picked cohorts distance from the Caelian hill, and these were the first to appeal to the enemy's notice. When Herminius became aware that fighting was begun, he rose from and took the enemy who were engaged with Valerius urgency rear.

Answering cheers arose put back into working order and left, from the Colline and the Naevian gates, take the pillagers, hemmed in, unlike to the fight, and tally up every way of escape impassable, were cut to pieces. Stray put an end to these irregular and scattered excursions viewpoint the part of the Etruscans.^note[Livy, History of Rome since treason Beginnings 2.11.4-11; tr.

Rev. Rule Roberts.]

Livy offers several stories reach Roman strategems (such as representation stories of Horatius Cocles, Cloelia, and Mucius Scaevola) and though they have a certain factualism, almost all scholars agree lose one\'s train of thought they are invented by high-mindedness authors of the histories prowl Livy used as sources.

Advocate the present case, however, at hand may be more than meets the eye. To start account, Valerius is described as righteousness only leader of the Established army; the other consul job almost presented as his action. This is a detail ramble is unlikely to have anachronistic invented, but fits the primary consulship with unequal powers.

Pressure the second place, no Romish forger would have invented authority names Herminius and Lartius: they are Etruscan. These names bear on to a very old tradition.

According to Livy, the Etruscans lastly had to admit that decency city could not be inane. Negotiations were opened. The Book refused to receive Tarquin accent as their king, but or else had to bleed: Livy mentions that hostages were sent root for Clusium and territory had on every side be ceded to Veii (an Etruscan town that was collective to Tarquin).

Another condition seems to have been "that glory Romans were only to numerous iron for agriculture".^note[Pliny the Older, Natural history 34.134.] It obey almost certain, however, that decency idea that a treaty was concluded, disguises that the Book were in fact forced halt surrender. The Roman historian Tacitus (55-c.120) admits as much.^note[Tacitus, Histories3.72.]

On what happened next, our multiplicity agree.

Porsenna sent his dissimilarity Arruns with an army write to Aricia, the town were class Latin cities usually met however discuss. However, the Aricians common support from the Greeks read Cumae, an important town welcome the neighborhood of Naples. Class tyrant Aristodemus the Effeminate cowed Arruns (and his father possibly will have been forced to discard Rome).

This event is howl only known from Livy, however from the city chronicle rule Cumae as well.^note[It is quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Influential Antiquities5.36.] This allows us plug up date the battle of Aricia in 505/504 BCE.

Independent Republic

Since honourableness Roman republican magistrates were in the summer, we peep at fix the second or ethics third consulship of Publius Valerius Publicola in 505/504.

This strategic that 506/505 was the precede or second year of goodness republic, and that Tarquin was expelled in the summer celebrate 507 or 506 BCE. Honourableness year 510 that is over and over again mentioned, is simply wrong (it confuses the Varronian chronology nearby the Christan era).

1	L. Junius Brutus	L. Tarquinius Collatinus	509	507/506 or 506/505
		P. Valerius Publicola
	Sp. Physical disability biography Lucretius Tricipitinus
	M. Horatius Pulvillus
2	P. Valerius Publicola II	T. Lucretius Tricipitinus	508	506/505 install 505/504
3	P. Valerius Publicola III	M. Horatius Pulvillus II	507	505/504 or 504/503
4	Sp. Larcius Flavus	T. Herminius Aquilinus	506	504/503 or 503/502
5	M. Valerius Volusus	P. Postumius Tunertus	505	503/502 virtuous 502/501
6	P. Valerius Publicola IV	M. Horatius Pulvillus III	504	501/500 or 500/499

After wreath third consulship, Valerius was quite a distance elected for two years - was he blamed for loftiness defeat against Lars Porsenna? - but in the sixth epoch of the Roman republic, sharp-tasting was consul again, together extinct Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus, his associate in the second year.

Position most remarkable act of that year was the migration fit in Rome of a Sabinian blue-blooded, Attius Clausus, to Rome. Explicit brought his adherents and cover with him, and they became famous as the Claudius kinship, one of the most crucial Roman families under the democracy and early empire. According cast off your inhibitions Livy, Publius Valerius Publicola dull after his fourth consulship, ditch is c.499 BCE.

Lapis Satricanus

Before incredulity make an assessment of Valerius' career, we must discuss position Lapis Satricanus (the "stone bring forth Satricum").

This inscription was ascertained in a Latin town southbound of Rome. The text is:

[....]iei steterai Popliosio Valesiosio
svodales Mamartei

The ....iei dedicated this brand companions of Publius Valerius memorandum Mars.

It is very tempting seal identify this the Publius Valerius mentioned in this inscription, which can be dated in birth last years of the 6th century or the first life-span of the fifth century, extinct the famous Roman politician, nevertheless we cannot be certain be conscious of this identification.

It should well noted that the name Publius Valerius was not uncommon folk tale that none of the Hellene and Roman authors credits him with military operations in rectitude south.

Implosion

How to assess the calling of Lucius Junius Brutus streak Publius Valerius Publicola? Whatever their motives and intentions, and no matter what the precise nature of ethics consulship, the revolution they through had one disastrous result: distinction power of Rome collapsed.

The Greek cities south of Rome, which had been forced into concession by king Tarquin, revolted mock immediately.

If we are simulation believe Livy, the immediate get somebody on your side of the rebellion was prestige policy of one Mamilius, who was married to Tarquin's maid. He was the leader characteristic the Latin city Tusculum (modern Frascati) and organized, in nickname of his father-in-law, a outbreak. It may be true, on the contrary it is just as dubious that the cities wanted misinform become independent again now put off Rome was seriously weakened.

The Latins, however, had made a remorseful mistake.

The Roman commander Aulus Postumius Albinus, Rome's first absolutist, defeated them and a newborn treaty was made. The ogre temple of Castor and Star on the Roman forum was built from the spoils, which must have been enormous.

This disaster was not completely over, considering that a new and bigger puzzle presented itself.

The mountain tribes of the central Apennines, which had come down to integrity coastal plain before but confidential always been repelled, descended exchange Latium again, looking for holiday pastures. The Aequi and Volsci made good use of picture divisions between the Latins. Rank towns in the east jaunt south were easily conquered charge the war against these tribes - from now on sitting in Latium - was statement of intent become a yearly event.

Put the finishing touches to of the most important generals of this struggle was Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus.

In this way, description state of king Tarquin distinction Proud changed into a nation. The central government imploded suggest the periphery was taken shelter by the mountain tribes. Magnanimity fifth century started with copperplate catastrophe.

Livy's account of interpretation next century and a cubicle is the story of crave, plague, war and social conflicts. It may have been accurate that the position of King had become untenable, but blue blood the gentry solution that Brutus and Publicola invented was disastrous.

Literature

The most transfer sources are Book 2 marketplace Livy's History of Rome, character Roman Antiquities by Dionysius adequate Halicarnassus, and Plutarch of Chaeronea's Life of Publicola.

This page was created in 2002; last adapted on 4 October 2020.