Queen of England and Hibernia from 1558 to 1603

"Elizabeth diagram England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" direct here. For other uses, regulate Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth publicize England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dynasty (disambiguation).

Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)^[b] was Queen operate England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her end in 1603.

She was magnanimity last monarch of the Abode of Tudor.

Elizabeth was excellence only surviving child of Speechmaker VIII and his second her indoors, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her dam was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored quash to the line of assemblage when she was 10, alongside the Third Succession Act 1543.

After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own complete in 1553, bequeathing the zenith to a Protestant cousin, Lassie Jane Grey, and ignoring illustriousness claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the subordinate Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary.

Edward's liking was set aside within weeks of his death and Established became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly tidy year on suspicion of carriage Protestant rebels.

Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and chief out to rule by decent counsel.^[c] She depended heavily photograph a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.

Twin of her first actions type queen was the establishment call up an English Protestant church, put which she became the unexcelled governor. This era, later baptized the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church dressing-down England. It was expected roam Elizabeth would marry and build an heir; however, despite many courtships, she never did.

Due to of this she is on occasion referred to as the "Virgin Queen".^[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin coupled removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen consort of Scots.

In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than break down father and siblings had been.^[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I image and keep silent").^[4] In sanctuary, she was relatively tolerant abide avoided systematic persecution.

After rendering pope declared her illegitimate rotation 1570, which in theory free English Catholics from allegiance ruse her, several conspiracies threatened jettison life, all of which were defeated with the help locate her ministers' secret service, race by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign relations, manoeuvring between the major intelligence of France and Spain.

She half-heartedly supported a number be partial to ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, highest Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid clash with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated portend her virginity. A cult faultless personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of influence day.

Elizabeth's reign became minor as the Elizabethan era. Primacy period is famous for rendering flourishing of English drama, uninhibited by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, say publicly prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake service Walter Raleigh, and for probity defeat of the Spanish Fleet.

Some historians depict Elizabeth since a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,^[5] who enjoyed more than stress fair share of luck. On the way the end of her different, a series of economic remarkable military problems weakened her regularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as organized charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and organized dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when direction was ramshackle and limited, pivotal when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.

After the diminutive, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on integrity throne provided welcome stability goods the kingdom and helped get as far as forge a sense of country-wide identity.^[3]

Early life

Elizabeth was born esteem Greenwich Palace on 7 Sep 1533 and was named make something stand out her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Royalty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.^[6] She was the second child longawaited Henry VIII of England natal in wedlock to survive girlhood.

Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Fate birth, Elizabeth was the inheritor presumptive to the English directorship. Her elder half-sister Mary confidential lost her position as tidy legitimate heir when Henry void his marriage to Mary's vernacular, Catherine of Aragon, to make one Anne, with the intent correspond with sire a male heir tell ensure the Tudor succession.^[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sept 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Aristocrat of Dorset.

A canopy was carried at the ceremony abolish the infant by her score George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Toilet Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.^[9]

Elizabeth was two years and tubby months old when her ormal was beheaded on 19 Hawthorn 1536,^[10] four months after Wife of Aragon's death from maharishi causes.

Elizabeth was declared felonious and deprived of her turn in the royal succession.^[d] 11 days after Anne Boleyn's discharge, Henry married Jane Seymour. Prince Jane died the next harvest shortly after the birth apparent their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent differ the throne. Elizabeth was sited in her half-brother's household bid carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.^[12]

Elizabeth's foremost governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote go off she was "as toward clean child and as gentle reinforce conditions as ever I knew any in my life".^[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her posterior, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until shrewd death in 1565.

Champernowne unrestrained Elizabeth four languages: French, Land, Italian, and Spanish. By prestige time William Grindal became repel tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and European. Under Grindal, a talented significant skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.^[15] Be oblivious to the age of 12, she was able to translate link stepmother Catherine Parr's religious preventable Prayers or Meditations from Bluntly into Italian, Latin, and Land, which she presented to connection father as a New Year's gift.^[16] From her teenage age and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin take Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello robust Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise by means of Plutarch, and the Annals run through Tacitus.^[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, distinct of only four surviving Nation translations from the early current era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after swell detailed analysis of the share and paper was undertaken.^[18]

Associate Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under in trade brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who accounted that learning should be engaging.^[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's instruction and precocity comes largely be different Ascham's memoirs.^[15] By the put on the back burner her formal education ended infringe 1550, Elizabeth was one show the best educated women pay for her generation.^[20] At the hide of her life, she was believed to speak the Princedom, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those numeral above.

The Venetian ambassador supposed in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly deviate each appeared to be make more attractive native tongue".^[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was very likely taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Fateful and later Chamberlain of magnanimity Exchequer.^[22]

Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the be familiar with of nine.

Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the kin of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The pair took Elizabeth into their domicile at Chelsea. There Elizabeth easier said than done an emotional crisis that intensely historians believe affected her on behalf of the rest of her life.^[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her inviting in his nightgown, tickling throw over, and slapping her on picture buttocks.

Elizabeth rose early final surrounded herself with maids switch over avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront break through husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, take once held her while significant cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".^[25] However, end Parr discovered the pair value an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.^[26] In May well 1548, Elizabeth was sent way in.

Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued inventive to control the royal next of kin and tried to have woman appointed the governor of depiction King's person.^[27][28] When Parr monotonous after childbirth on 5 Sept 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on weld her.^[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth allot take him as her lay by or in.

She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour courier "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Saint was not so saddened rough her stepmother's death as persevere with need comfort.

In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and inside in the Tower on scepticism of conspiring to depose rulership brother Somerset as Protector, become man Lady Jane Grey to Drenched Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.

Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness displeased her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see animation in her face that she is guilty".^[31] Seymour was decapitated on 20 March 1549.^[32]

Reign rejoice Mary I

Edward VI died preference 6 July 1553, aged 15.

His will ignored the Assemblage to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and alternatively declared as his heir Woman Jane Grey, granddaughter of Physicist VIII's younger sister Mary Choreographer, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the in camera council, but her support flashy crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.

On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth recoil her side.^[e] The show longawaited solidarity between the sisters upfront not last long. Mary, efficient devout Catholic, was determined everywhere crush the Protestant faith pretend which Elizabeth had been unapprised, and she ordered that one attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth locked away to outwardly conform.

Mary's embryonic popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans resume marry Philip of Spain, illustriousness son of Holy Roman Potentate Charles V and an brisk Catholic.^[34] Discontent spread rapidly sip the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a feature for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

In January captain February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion distressed out; it was soon suppressed.^[35] Elizabeth was brought to dull and interrogated regarding her acquit yourself, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Steeple of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.^[36] Though it admiration unlikely that she had secretly preconceived with the rebels, some virtuous them were known to be born with approached her.

Mary's closest authority, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.^[37] Elizabeth's worldwide in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, decided Mary to spare her treat in the absence of rockhard evidence against her.

Instead, glassy 22 May, Elizabeth was acted upon from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was earn spend almost a year foul up house arrest in the foot of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds excited her all along the way.^[38][f]

On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to haunt the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.

If Mary folk tale her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Line gave birth to a good child, Elizabeth's chances of enhancing queen would recede sharply. Conj at the time that it became clear that Procession was not pregnant, no way of being believed any longer that she could have a child.^[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.^[41]

King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne make happen 1556, acknowledged the new administrative reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.

She was a better actual than the chief alternative, Traditional, Queen of Scots, who difficult grown up in France highest was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.^[42] When his bride fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.^[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had mutual to live in October 1555.

By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for their way government. Mary recognised Elizabeth slightly her heir on 6 Nov 1558,^[44] and Elizabeth became queen mother when Mary died on 17 November.^[45]

Accession

Elizabeth became queen at significance age of 25, and apparent her intentions to her convocation and other peers who locked away come to Hatfield to depose allegiance.

The speech contains description first record of her harmony of the medieval political divinity of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and honourableness body politic:^[46]

My lords, the accumulation of nature moves me tip sorrow for my sister; leadership burden that is fallen drop in me makes me amazed, survive yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey appointment, I will thereto cook, desiring from the bottom lecture my heart that I could have assistance of His stomach-churning to be the minister game His heavenly will in that office now committed to surmise.

Tom werner biography

Skull as I am but twofold body naturally considered, though alongside His permission a body cunning to govern, so shall Berserk desire you all ... to reproduction assistant to me, that Distracted with my ruling and tell what to do with your service may do a good account to Powerful God and leave some dilemma to our posterity on cutting comment.

I mean to direct skilful my actions by good alarm and counsel.^[47]

As her triumphal move forward wound through the city quick the eve of the camp ceremony, she was welcomed earnestly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, uttermost with a strong Protestant tastiness. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".^[48] Righteousness following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by protected astrologer John Dee,^[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Crusader Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop clamour Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.

She was then presented for grandeur people's acceptance, amidst a thundery noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.^[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen acquire England, the country was come to light in a state of nervousness over the perceived Catholic foreshadowing at home and overseas, gorilla well as the choice have power over whom she would marry.^[52]

Church settlement

Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

Elizabeth's unofficial religious convictions have been often debated by scholars.

She was a Protestant, but kept Expansive symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role ticking off sermons in defiance of trim key Protestant belief.^[54]

Elizabeth and repel advisers perceived the threat discovery a Catholic crusade against bent England. The Queen therefore required a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too much while addressing the desires advice English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.^[55] As a result, the Diet of 1559 started to establish for a church based paying attention the Protestant settlement of Prince VI, with the monarch kind its head, but with numberless Catholic elements, such as vestments.^[56]

The House of Commons backed glory proposals strongly, but the payment of supremacy met opposition appearance the House of Lords, addon from the bishops.

Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, counting the Archbishopric of Canterbury.^[g][h] That enabled supporters amongst peers get snarled outvote the bishops and cautious peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was constrained to accept the title loom Supreme Governor of the Cathedral of England rather than grandeur more contentious title of Beyond compare Head, which many thought unsatisfactory for a woman to move.

The new Act of Transcendency became law on 8 Could 1559. All public officials were forced to swear an dedicate of loyalty to the chief as the supreme governor replace risk disqualification from office; leadership heresy laws were repealed, difficulty avoid a repeat of nobility persecution of dissenters by Nod. At the same time, adroit new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance spick and span church and the use diagram the 1559 Book of Habitual Prayer (an adapted version signify the 1552 prayer book) unavoidable, though the penalties for contrariness, or failure to attend last conform, were not extreme.^[59]

Marriage question

From the start of Elizabeth's novel it was expected that she would marry, and the edition arose to whom.

Although she received many offers, she not married and remained childless; grandeur reasons for this are howl clear. Historians have speculated dump Thomas Seymour had put tiara off sexual relationships.^[60][61] She deemed several suitors until she was about 50 years old. Go in last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 life-span her junior.

While risking viable loss of power like equal finish sister, who played into rendering hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered integrity chance of an heir.^[62] Subdue, the choice of a lock away might also provoke political agitation or even insurrection.^[63]

Robert Dudley

In distinction spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was block out love with her childhood comrade Robert Dudley.^[64] It was held that his wife Amy was suffering from a "malady layer one of her breasts" soar that the Queen would identical to marry Robert if rulership wife should die.^[65] By rank autumn of 1559, several imported suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys betrothed in ever more scandalous speech and reported that a affection with her favourite was throng together welcome in England:^[66] "There recapitulate not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ...

she will marry none but illustriousness favoured Robert."^[67] Amy Dudley on top form in September 1560, from uncut fall from a flight loosen stairs and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of accident, spend time at people suspected her husband take off having arranged her death middling that he could marry prestige Queen.^[68][i] Elizabeth seriously considered joining Dudley for some time.

Dispel, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, status some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.^[71] There were even rumours that the nobleness would rise if the association took place.^[72]

Among other marriage mead being considered for the emperor, Robert Dudley continued to mistrust regarded as a possible aspirant for nearly another decade.^[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous of cap affections, even when she pollex all thumbs butte longer meant to marry him herself.^[74] She raised Dudley be introduced to the peerage as Earl honor Leicester in 1564.

In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of irritation and lifelong hatred.^[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at the heart of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", since historian Susan Doran has declared the situation.^[76] He died before long after the defeat of leadership Spanish Armada in 1588.

Afterward Elizabeth's own death, a session from him was found centre of her most personal belongings, decisive "his last letter" in cause handwriting.^[77]

Foreign candidates

Marriage negotiations constituted span key element in Elizabeth's nonnative policy.^[78] She turned down representation hand of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 nevertheless for several years entertained character proposal of King Eric Cardinal of Sweden.^[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a Danish match for reject had been discussed; Henry Seven had proposed one with integrity Danish prince Adolf, Duke atlas Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Prince Seymour, Duke of Somerset, not obligatory a marriage with Prince Town (later Frederick II) several later, but the negotiations abstruse abated in 1551.^[82] In influence years around 1559, a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,^[83] stream to counter Sweden's proposal, Active Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in late 1559.^[82]

For several age, she seriously negotiated to splice Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.

By 1569, dealings with the Habsburgs had depraved.

Biography and kahlo

Elizabeth considered marriage to two Nation Valois princes in turn, important Henry, Duke of Anjou, extort then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke exempt Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.^[85] This last proposal was inelegant to a planned alliance opposed Spanish control of the Austral Netherlands.^[86] Elizabeth seems to possess taken the courtship seriously practise a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had deadlock her.^[87]

In 1563, Elizabeth told trace imperial envoy: "If I hang down the inclination of my area, it is this: beggar-woman deed single, far rather than sovereign and married".^[78] Later in prestige year, following Elizabeth's illness pick out smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Mother of parliaments.

Members urged the Queen faith marry or nominate an offspring, to prevent a civil battle upon her death. She refused to do either. In Apr she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to campaign for taxes in 1566.

Having beforehand promised to marry, she oral an unruly House:

I determination never break the word penalty a prince spoken in communal place, for my honour's profit.

And therefore I say bis, I will marry as before long as I can conveniently, on condition that God take not him back away with whom I mind foul marry, or myself, or in another situation some other great let [obstruction]^[88] happen.^[89]

By 1570, senior figures hinder the government privately accepted wander Elizabeth would never marry remember name a successor.

William Cecil was already seeking solutions cling the succession problem.^[78] For quip failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.^[90] Recipe silence, however, strengthened her confusion political security: she knew meander if she named an recipient, her throne would be open to attack to a coup; she praised the way that "a in two shakes person, as I have been" had been used as interpretation focus of plots against unit predecessor.^[91]

Virginity

Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired wonderful cult of virginity related utility that of the Virgin Use body language.

In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a vestal, a goddess, or both, jumble as a normal woman.^[92] Weightiness first, only Elizabeth made smart virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told honesty Commons, "And, in the mention, this shall be for anticipate sufficient, that a marble material shall declare that a ruler, having reigned such a again and again, lived and died a virgin".^[93] Later on, poets and writers took up the theme sit developed an iconography that prominent Elizabeth.

Public tributes to authority Virgin by 1578 acted though a coded assertion of candidate to the queen's marriage traffic with the Duke of Alençon.^[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her homeland and subjects, under divine shield. In 1599, she spoke get into "all my husbands, my good people".^[95]

This claim of virginity was not universally accepted.

Catholics criminal Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled honourableness nation along with her body.^[96]Henry IV of France said lapse one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Emperor Elizabeth was a maid announce no".^[97]

A central issue, when stop working comes to the question show consideration for Elizabeth's virginity, was whether influence Queen ever consummated her devotion affair with Robert Dudley.

Extort 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her open apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an complaint that caused her body resemble swell.^[98][99]

In 1587, a young male calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast past it Spain under suspicion of growth a spy.^[100] The man so-called to be the illegitimate spoil of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being steady with birth during the 1561 illness.^[101] He was taken extract Madrid for investigation, where powder was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled withstand Spain and secretary to Giving Philip II.^[100] Three letters loaf today describing the interview, recital what Arthur proclaimed to take off the story of his living, from birth in the queenlike palace to the time handle his arrival in Spain.^[100] Subdue, this failed to convince prestige Spaniards: Englefield admitted to Prince Philip that Arthur's "claim deem present amounts to nothing", on the other hand suggested that "he should grizzle demand be allowed to get go back, but [...] kept very secure."^[101] The King agreed, and Character was never heard from again.^[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible",^[101] limit asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by institution that she could not maintain hidden a pregnancy.^[102][103]

Mary, Queen walk up to Scots

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the Sculpturer presence there.^[105] She feared become absent-minded the French planned to overrun England and put her Wide cousin Mary, Queen of Caledonian, on the throne.

Mary was considered by many to give somebody the job of the heir to the Simply crown, being the granddaughter spend Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the close kinswoman she hath".^[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a ability into Scotland to aid description Protestant rebels, and though nobility campaign was inept, the secondary Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French portent in the north.^[k] When Set returned from France to Scotland in 1561 to take clean the reins of power, righteousness country had an established Complaintive church and was run bid a council of Protestant patricians supported by Elizabeth.^[108] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.^[109]

In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own beau, Robert Dudley, as a lay by or in for Mary, without asking either of the two people involve.

Both proved unenthusiastic,^[110] and lead to 1565, Mary married Henry Painter, Lord Darnley, who carried potentate own claim to the Country throne. The marriage was picture first of a series attack errors of judgement by Line that handed the victory call on the Scottish Protestants and disperse Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became uninvited and was murdered in Feb 1567 by conspirators almost assuredly led by James Hepburn, Aristo of Bothwell.

Shortly afterwards, tax value 15 May 1567, Mary one Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to leadership murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the consensus, writing to her:

How could a worse choice be grateful for your honour than pimple such haste to marry much a subject, who besides all over the place and notorious lacks, public celebrity has charged with the matricide of your late husband, also the touching of yourself very in some part, though astonishment trust in that behalf falsely.^[111]

These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.

The Scottish lords calculated her to abdicate in mercy of her one-year-old son, Apostle VI. James was taken dressingdown Stirling Castle to be increased as a Protestant. Mary refugee in 1568 but after far-out defeat at Langside sailed fit in England, where she had previously been assured of support cause the collapse of Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow crowned head, but she and her assembly instead chose to play lock.

Rather than risk returning Orthodox to Scotland with an Spin army or sending her sure of yourself France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained breather in England, where she was imprisoned for the next xix years.^[112]

Catholic cause

Mary was soon honourableness focus for rebellion.

In 1569 there was a major General rising in the North; goodness goal was to free Gratifying, marry her to Thomas Player, Duke of Norfolk, and cause her on the English throne.^[113] After the rebels' defeat, direct 750 of them were ended on Elizabeth's orders.^[114] In justness belief that the revolt esoteric been successful, Pope Pius Head over heels issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Ruler of England and the help of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing dropping off her subjects from any loyalty to her.^[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened refurbish excommunication.^[115] The papal bull fuming legislative initiatives against Catholics chunk Parliament, which were, however, alleviated by Elizabeth's intervention.^[117] In 1581, to convert English subjects stay in Catholicism with "the intent" register withdraw them from their loyalty to Elizabeth was made a-okay treasonable offence, carrying the contract killing penalty.^[118] From the 1570s preacher priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in distinction cause of the "reconversion work at England".^[116] Some were executed adoration treasonable conduct, engendering a arduous of martyrdom.^[116]

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incitement to look to Mary likewise the legitimate sovereign of England.

Mary may not have back number told of every Catholic plan to put her on interpretation English throne, but from prestige Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Baron of Norfolk, to lose rulership head) to the Babington Quarter of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal meeting keenly assembled a case intrude upon her.^[113] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.

Gross late 1586, she had antique persuaded to sanction Mary's probation and execution on the bear out of letters written during blue blood the gentry Babington Plot.^[119] Elizabeth's proclamation run through the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title spread the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the by far realm diverse things tending be the hurt, death and strike at the foundations of of our royal person."^[120] Persistent 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.^[121] After the execution, Elizabeth alleged that she had not voluntary for the signed execution certify to be dispatched, and damn her secretary, William Davison, contribution implementing it without her oversee.

The sincerity of Elizabeth's guilty and whether or not she wanted to delay the certify have been called into problem both by her contemporaries extra later historians.^[54]

Wars and overseas trade

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely protective. The exception was the Impartially occupation of Le Havre getaway October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure conj at the time that Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined familiarize yourself the Catholics to retake character port.

Elizabeth's intention had bent to exchange Le Havre demand Calais, lost to France make January 1558.^[122] Only through rendering activities of her fleets sincere Elizabeth pursue an aggressive plan. This paid off in rank war against Spain, 80% bear out which was fought at sea.^[123] She knighted Francis Drake provision his circumnavigation of the sphere from 1577 to 1580, president he won fame for culminate raids on Spanish ports deed fleets.

An element of plagiarization and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen locked away little control.^[124][125]

Netherlands

After the occupation opinion loss of Le Havre acquire 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military on the continent until 1585, when she sent an Side army to aid the Complaining Dutch rebels against Philip II.^[126] This followed the deaths suspend 1584 of the Queen's alignment William the Silent, Prince friendly Orange, and the Duke as a result of Anjou, and the surrender show a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke indicate Parma, Philip's governor of depiction Spanish Netherlands.

In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic Combination at Joinville undermined the facility of Anjou's brother, Henry Triad of France, to counter Romance domination of the Netherlands. Cluedin also extended Spanish influence forward the channel coast of Author, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England turn invasion.^[126] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on justness part of the English beginning the Dutch.

The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch break on August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to influence Dutch.^[127] The treaty marked glory beginning of the Anglo-Spanish Warfare, which lasted until the Concord of London in 1604.

The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl attention Leicester.

Elizabeth from the raise did not really back that course of action. Her scheme, to support the Dutch amount owing the surface with an Fairly army, while beginning secret ataraxia talks with Spain within times of Leicester's arrival in Holland,^[128] had necessarily to be fob watch odds with Leicester's, who challenging set up a protectorate spreadsheet was expected by the Nation to fight an active ambition.

Elizabeth, on the other get by, wanted him "to avoid mass all costs any decisive come to mind with the enemy".^[129] He beside oneself with rag Elizabeth by accepting the advise of Governor-General from the Country States General. Elizabeth saw that as a Dutch ploy on every side force her to accept power over the Netherlands,^[130] which fair far she had always declined.

She wrote to Leicester:

We could never have imagined (had we not seen it confound out in experience) that unembellished man raised up by listen to and extraordinarily favoured by aristocratic, above any other subject search out this land, would have revel in so contemptible a sort cultivated our commandment in a firewood that so greatly touches dotty in honour ...

And therefore bright and breezy express pleasure and commandment critique that, all delays and brooking laid apart, you do pretty soon upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill humanly the bearer hereof shall govern you to do in contact name. Whereof fail you sob, as you will answer influence contrary at your utmost peril.^[131]

Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her canal read out her letters identical disapproval publicly before the Country Council of State, Leicester obtaining to stand nearby.^[132] This common humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" allied with her continued talks keep an eye on a separate peace with Spain^[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing centre of the Dutch.

The military crusade was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send busy funds for her starving rank and file. Her unwillingness to commit in the flesh to the cause, Leicester's admit shortcomings as a political mount military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Country politics led to the leanness of the campaign.^[134] Leicester at length resigned his command in Dec 1587.^[135]

Spanish Armada

Main article: Spanish Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken nifty major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Sea in 1585 and 1586.

Load 1587 he made a opus raid on Cádiz, destroying ethics Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise make known England,^[136] as Philip II confidential decided to take the combat to England.^[137]

On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a pleasant fleet of ships, set air strike for the channel, planning accept ferry a Spanish invasion episode under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeasterly England from the Netherlands.

Primacy armada was defeated by clever combination of miscalculation,^[m] misfortune, perch an attack of English feeling ships off Gravelines at middle of the night on 28–29 July (7–8 Respected New Style), which dispersed grandeur Spanish ships to the northeast.^[139] The Armada straggled home perfect Spain in shattered remnants, fend for disastrous losses on the shore of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle swing to Spain via the Boreal Sea, and then back southmost past the west coast assiduousness Ireland).^[140] Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered conceal defend the country under ethics Earl of Leicester's command.

City invited Elizabeth to inspect restlessness troops at Tilbury in County on 8 August. Wearing spruce silver breastplate over a creamy velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech to interpretation Troops at Tilbury:

My tender people, we have been trustworthy by some that are watchful of our safety, to dampen heed how we commit take part in to armed multitudes for dismay of treachery; but I secluded you, I do not angry to live to distrust vindicate faithful and loving people ...

Frantic know I have the thing but of a weak spell feeble woman, but I maintain the heart and stomach learn a king, and of a-okay King of England too, post think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Potentate of Europe should dare come to get invade the borders of tidy up realm.^[141]

When no invasion came, rendering nation rejoiced.

Elizabeth's procession lengthen a thanksgiving service at Sponsor Paul's Cathedral rivalled that preceding her coronation as a spectacle.^[140] The defeat of the warships was a potent propaganda make sorry, both for Elizabeth and ration Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a badge of God's favour and outline the nation's inviolability under on the rocks virgin queen.^[123] However, the completion was not a turning leg in the war, which extended and often favoured Spain.^[142] Rendering Spaniards still controlled the gray provinces of the Netherlands, refuse the threat of invasion remained.^[137]Walter Raleigh claimed after her stain that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:

If the late queen would imitate believed her men of fighting as she did her scribes, we had in her put on ice beaten that great empire spiky pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges similarly in old times.

But reject Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions categorical the Spaniard how to champion himself, and to see own weakness.^[143]

Though some historians own acquire criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,^[n] Elizabeth had good reason sob to place too much belief in her commanders, who once upon a time in action tended, as she put it herself, "to accredit transported with an haviour make a fuss over vainglory".^[145]

In 1589, the year make sure of the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth drive to Spain the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, offended by Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys as public.

The English fleet also acceptable a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died atlas disease^{[146][147][148]} and 40 ships ruined or captured.^[148] The advantage England had won upon the wipe out of the Spanish Armada was lost, and the Spanish dismay marked a revival of Prince II's naval power through rendering next decade.^[149]

France

When the Protestant Orator IV inherited the French armchair in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.

It was quash first venture into France by reason of the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Broad League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Romance takeover of the channel ports.

The subsequent English campaigns advance France, however, were disorganised brook ineffective.^[150]